Pilgrimage at scale: Hajj, Arbaeen, surveillance

Episode Narrative

Pilgrimage is an ancient practice, one steeped in the traditions and spiritual rituals of millions. Yet, over the decades, it has transformed into something much larger, more complex, and more technologically sophisticated. The journey of Hajj and Arbaeen — from their roles as traditional acts of faith to modern-day mega-events — encapsulates the heart of this evolution. It reflects not only the spiritual aspirations of the faithful but also the challenges, triumphs, and tragedies that accompany such grand congregations of humanity.

As we voyage through this narrative, let us begin in Saudi Arabia, where a significant transformation was brewing. From 1991 to 2025, the urban landscape of Mecca underwent monumental redevelopment — an ambitious project aimed at accommodating millions who travel annually for Hajj, the largest gathering of its kind in the world. The Grand Mosque, or Masjid al-Haram, expanded dramatically. Towering structures and luxury hotels began to intertwine with the sacred, creating an intricate tapestry of faith and commerce. Mecca blossomed into a mega-pilgrimage hub, not just infused with modern infrastructure, but hardened by extensive surveillance systems designed to manage the sheer scale of the crowds that thronged its streets.

Yet this monumental expansion came in the face of pressing need. The tragedies of the past were still fresh in the collective memory. Two very tragic events — the 1990 and 2015 stampedes — shocked the Muslim world and prompted Saudi authorities to rethink crowd control measures. Hundreds lost their lives in these incidents, a painful reminder of the risks associated with mass gatherings. The very essence of Hajj — a journey towards spiritual renewal — was overshadowed by the specter of disaster. This turmoil led to the introduction of advanced surveillance technologies, biometric tracking, and tightly regulated pilgrim flows, all designed to reduce the risk of fatalities during these sacred rites. What was once a purely spiritual journey was increasingly infused with the language of security and control.

While Saudi Arabia was grappling with its challenges, the geopolitical landscape of the Middle East was also shifting. The rise and fall of the Islamic State from 2014 to 2018 created significant ripples for pilgrimage routes and religious expressions across regions. Traditional practices faced disruption, especially for Shia pilgrims traveling to Iraq for Arbaeen. The chaotic governance cycles imposed by such extremist entities unsettled the sacred landscapes, unsettling a profound experience that had, for centuries, brought solace and unity.

Speaking of Arbaeen, it deserves special recognition in this narrative. From 2003 to 2025, the pilgrimage to Karbala expanded to become the largest annual religious gathering in the world. With estimates exceeding 20 million participants, the streets adorned with banners and the sounds of mourning rituals became a living testament to the enduring legacy of Imam Hussein’s sacrifice. A sea of humanity walking in solidarity, this event transcended borders and reflected cultural resilience, whispering stories of hope amidst suffering.

However, life is a circle of mourning and celebration, and in 2019, a new shadow loomed large — the COVID-19 pandemic. The impact on pilgrimage practices was profound and immediate. Hajj and Arbaeen witnessed a drastic reduction in numbers, a haunting echo of solitary confinement amid bustling streets. In this unprecedented time, religious practices adapted and evolved. The adoption of digital technologies surged. Mobile apps became essential for virtual guidance and health monitoring, reshaping what it meant to embark on the pilgrimage experience.

As we continued into the 2010s and beyond, Saudi Arabia took significant steps to further modernize Hajj. The introduction of biometric visas and electronic permits marked a vital pivot toward a tech-driven approach to religious event management. Facial recognition and fingerprint scanning facilitated smoother entry into the holy city, but they also sparked discussions about privacy and individual freedoms. The pilgrimage, once solely a matter of faith, now swirled in the complicated waters of state control and surveillance.

Throughout this period, the geopolitical rivalry between nations like Iran and Turkey cast long shadows over pilgrimage experiences. Both states promoted their respective religious narratives, further fueling sectarian tensions. The Arab Spring uprisings, unfolding around the same time, exacerbated these divides. Pilgrimage sites once filled with unity became potential flashpoints for violence and political control — sacred spaces transformed into battlegrounds of ideology.

Meanwhile, in the midst of such complexities, religious tourism blossomed. From the 2000s onwards, the intertwining of commerce with pilgrimage became a telling narrative of how rulers and leaders utilized these gatherings for diplomacy and soft power projection. Pilgrim tents transformed into venues for political networking, as the act of faith blurred with political maneuvering.

Yet, in an era marked by division, there also appeared a simmering longing for peace. Religious moderation efforts began to take root, driven by local cultural wisdom and interfaith dialogues. Amidst tensions, some communities sought to promote coexistence during pilgrimage seasons, reflecting hope for a future where sectarian divides would no longer define them.

The impact of longstanding conflicts, such as the Israeli-Palestinian crisis, further complicated these pilgrimage narratives. Jerusalem’s Al-Aqsa Mosque remained a focal point, its importance sullying relationships and influencing regional dynamics. Pilgrimage experiences became emblematic of broader geopolitical fractures, where access and safety were often defined by fear and suspicion.

With the post-pandemic recovery from 2020 to 2025, there emerged a cautious reopening of pilgrimage sites. Enhanced health protocols were embraced, mirroring a new era where spirituality and health converged. Vaccination requirements and digital health passports reflected the societal transformation that had taken place during years of uncertainty. These new protocols echoed not only public health priorities but also a hesitance, a collective call for safety as humanity continued its age-old dance with faith.

Yet these changes carry deeper implications. As the pilgrimage experience increasingly mirrored the geopolitical tensions within the Middle East, it led us to question what it truly means to embark on such a sacred journey. Pilgrimage, now synonymous with surveillance and regulation, raises profound questions about faith, identity, and control.

What will be the legacy of this pilgrimage at scale? How do we reconcile technology’s growing role in faith with the essence of spirituality? The technological tapestry woven into the pilgrimage experience hints at a more interconnected world, yet it calls into question the sincerity of connection amidst crowd analytics and biometric data.

As we reflect on these questions, we also witness the unyielding spirit of millions who journey toward the sacred. They continue to embody hope, unity, and resilience, woven together by a shared sense of purpose. Each step they take, whether walking to Karbala for Arbaeen or navigating the complexities of Hajj, serves as a mirror reflecting their unshakeable faith amid an ever-changing world.

What remains clear is that the pilgrimage experience — from its ancient roots to its modern manifestations — is at the intersection of profound beliefs, complex politics, and the human spirit's indomitable quest for meaning. It is a journey filled with echoes of the past and whispers of the future, stirring questions of identity, belonging, and ultimately, what it means to be human in an age of profound change.