The King and the Pope: Rome, 1870

Episode Narrative

In the year 1870, a profound shift was taking place in the heart of Italy, a land steeped in history, divided, yet full of potential. The Napoleonic Wars had come and gone, redrawing the map of Europe and inspiring a growing sense of nationalism that electrified the Italian populace. For centuries, Italy had been a patchwork of kingdoms, duchies, and city-states, frayed by external dominion and internal strife. By the dawn of the 19th century, revolutionary fervor was weaving a new tapestry of unity, though the journey towards a consolidated nation remained tumultuous.

The years between 1800 and 1815 were marked by turmoil and transformation. Napoleon's conquests dismantled the old structures of Italian governance; however, the Congress of Vienna in 1815 reinstated many of the old borders, placing Italy back under a web of foreign control, particularly under Austrian dominance. Yet, the seeds of discontent had taken root, watered by the dreams of a new generation inspired by figures like Giuseppe Mazzini. In 1831, Mazzini founded Young Italy, a movement that rallied for a unified republic, igniting passions and promising to awaken a dormant spirit among Italians. His writings became the bedrock of revolutionary thoughts, infiltrating the minds of countless young dreamers, yet the early uprisings they sparked often ended in failure.

By 1848, waves of revolution were crashing down across Europe, and Italy felt the tides shift as movements burgeoned in cities like Milan, Venice, and Rome. For a fleeting moment, and rather romantically, republics were proclaimed. But hope turned to despair as Austrian and French forces swiftly quashed these uprisings, displacing the very Pope, Pius IX, who had momentarily embraced reform. His flight from Rome in 1849 was poignant, a symbolic retreat from the ideals of future independence and unity that so many sought.

The Second Italian War of Independence in 1859 acts as a critical moment in this narrative. Here, under the leadership of Camillo Benso, Count of Cavour, Piedmont-Sardinia allied with France, casting its sights on the Austrian Empire. This partnership bore fruit at battles such as Magenta and Solferino, where victories catalyzed critical territorial annexations. Lombardy, a significant piece in the unification puzzle, fell under Italian control, invigorating the momentum toward a more unified nation. The diverse cultural and political landscape of Italy was now alive with possibility, though many regions remained under foreign rule.

Yet, the dream remained tantalizingly out of reach until 1860, when the fiery and charismatic Giuseppe Garibaldi embarked on a journey known as the Expedition of the Thousand. With around a thousand volunteers, he landed in Sicily, determined to rally the Southern provinces in the fight for unity. As autumn descended, Garibaldi stunned the world by conquering the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, ultimately handing his victories over to King Victor Emmanuel II of Sardinia. On March 17, 1861, the Kingdom of Italy was proclaimed, a landmark moment in which the country's existence became official. Still, the shadows of division loomed large, as both Rome and Venice remained outside this fledgling state. Direct control of these cities rested with the Pope and Austria, respectively, leaving a fracture deep within the ambition of Italian unification.

The subsequent years brought a few unexpected and significant developments. In 1866, Italy capitalized on Prussia's victory over Austria during the Austro-Prussian War to claim Venice. The Kingdom of Italy was now closer than ever to completion, yet a veil of tension hung in the air. The “Roman Question,” as it became known, emerged as a contentious and defining aspect of Italian politics. Pius IX adamantly refused to acknowledge the existence of the new state, excommunicating its leaders and declaring himself a “prisoner” within the Vatican. His resistance echoed throughout the nation, a reflection that the merger of state and church would not be easily reconciled.

As the summer of 1870 unfurled, Europe found itself on the brink of another conflict — the Franco-Prussian War. France’s withdrawal of its garrison from Rome became a turning point, one that would unearth the long-simmering tensions within Italy. On September 20, Italian troops advanced into the city through the walls at Porta Pia, a moment forever etched into the annals of history. The fall of papal Rome symbolized not just a physical conquest but the collapse of ecclesiastical control over the Italian identity. The fervor of nationalism erupted, as Italians across the newly unified land celebrated the completion of their long-desired dream.

In 1871, Rome officially became the capital of Italy. The government, eager to redefine the relationships that bound state and church, enacted the Law of Guarantees. This legislation offered the Pope sovereignty over Vatican City and included a financial settlement intended to mend the rift. However, Pius IX was unmoved; he rejected the offer, reinforcing a schism that would reverberate through the decades. The Catholic Church's refusal to recognize the new Italian state not only created political friction but further complicated the identity of modern Italy.

As the years rolled on, from 1861 to 1914, Italy's transformation continued. Mass literacy campaigns emerged, particularly in the southern regions, yet progress was notoriously slow. By 1911, the shadow of illiteracy still loomed over Sicily, with rates surpassing 60 percent, emphasizing the socio-economic struggles of the newly minted kingdom. The Italian government took measures to secularize education and civil registries, pulling these institutions from church control and attempting to forge a unified civic identity. Particularly in devout regions, resistance emerged, but the country was inexorably moving towards a national narrative steeped in both secularism and an evolving sense of collective identity.

The burgeoning Italian nation was reflected in its culture. Opera became a vessel of nationalist sentiment, with composers like Giuseppe Verdi embedding calls for freedom within their works. Songs like “Va, pensiero” became anthems of unity and longing, intertwining art with the movement for a greater Italy. Through such cultural expressions, the voices of the people began to resonate, echoing their dreams of unity and self-determination.

Despite the turbulence, the Italian nation witnessed a remarkable growth in population, surging from 22 million in 1861 to 35 million by 1911. Yet, the expanse of emigration was profound; over five million Italians left their homeland between 1876 and 1914, driven by economic hardship and a search for opportunity abroad. Each person embarked on a journey defined by hope and challenge, contributing to the rich narrative of Italian diaspora and identity.

The events of 1870 and the subsequent years left an indelible mark on the Italian landscape and its people. The “Roman Question” would linger unresolved until the Lateran Treaties of 1929, but the battles fought — both on the streets and within the chambers of power — transformed the tenuous relationship between the state and the Catholic Church. This struggle did not just impact the political landscape; it etched itself into the very soul of Italy, shaping modern identity and influencing the broader strokes of European geopolitics.

In reflecting upon the echoes of 1870, we are presented with a landscape marked by conflict, passion, and incessant striving for unity. The fall of papal Rome signified more than just a military victory; it represented the triumph of a collective yearning for identity and agency. As we consider the voices of the past, we must ask: what stories do we inherit, and how do they shape our understanding of unity in a world still fractured by difference? For in those echoes lie not only the myths of history but the paths forward into an uncertain tomorrow.